This content is for educational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. For concerns related to your baby’s health, development, or sleep, or your own physical or mental wellbeing, always consult a qualified healthcare provider.
Most conversations about postpartum mental health focus on mothers, and for good reason. But a growing body of research shows that fathers are also vulnerable to depression, anxiety, and stress during the transition to parenthood, and that these struggles have real consequences for the entire family.
How common is it?
Paternal perinatal depression is more prevalent than many people realize. A comprehensive meta-analysis of 47 studies across 21 countries found that approximately 10% of fathers experience depression during their partner’s pregnancy, and about 9% experience it during the first postpartum year.¹ Some estimates run higher depending on the population studied, with rates as high as 23% reported in certain settings.²
Paternal perinatal anxiety is also common, affecting up to 11% of fathers during the perinatal period.³
A large 2026 cohort study of over one million fathers in Sweden found a striking pattern: rates of diagnosed psychiatric disorders actually dipped during pregnancy and the early postpartum weeks, possibly reflecting a “honeymoon” effect or reduced help-seeking, but then depression and stress-related disorders increased by more than 30% toward the end of the first postpartum year.⁴ In other words, fathers may be most vulnerable later than we might expect.
It’s not just stress. There’s biology involved.
Fathers undergo real hormonal changes during the transition to parenthood. Research shows that men experience declines in testosterone and vasopressin during their partner’s pregnancy and the postpartum period, along with increases in oxytocin during gestation.⁵ ⁶ These shifts are associated with increased parenting sensitivity and engagement. A meta-analysis of 50 studies found a moderate effect of lower testosterone on parenting quality.⁷ Preliminary neuroimaging research also suggests structural brain changes in expectant and new fathers, mirroring some of the well-characterized changes seen in mothers.⁷
This matters because it means the emotional upheaval of new fatherhood is not simply about adjusting to a new schedule. There is a physiological basis for the vulnerability fathers experience.
What are the risk factors?
A systematic review and meta-analysis identified several factors significantly associated with paternal postpartum depression:⁸
– History of mental illness (OR 3.48)
– Unemployment (OR 2.59)
– Financial strain (OR 2.07)
– Negative life events (OR 1.45)
– Low marital satisfaction (OR 1.40)
– Maternal postnatal depression (OR 1.17)
– Low social support
– Perceived stress
Notably, maternal and paternal depression are linked. When a mother develops postpartum depression and has no prior history of depression, the father’s risk of postpartum depression increases by 81%.⁹ The odds of paternal anxiety increase more than 3-fold when the mother is depressed.¹⁰
It can look different in fathers.
Fathers with perinatal depression may experience the classic symptoms of sadness, loss of interest, poor sleep, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating. But research suggests that some symptoms are more common in fathers than mothers, including irritability, anger, seeking distraction through increased work or screen time, and increased drug and alcohol use.¹¹
These differences matter because they can make paternal depression harder to recognize, both for the father himself and for the people around him.
Why it matters for the whole family.
Paternal perinatal depression does not just affect the father. A 2025 meta-analysis of 48 cohorts found that paternal perinatal mental distress was associated with poorer child development across multiple domains, including social-emotional, cognitive, language, and global development.³ The effects were particularly strong for social-emotional outcomes, including increased internalizing and externalizing behaviors in children. These associations extended beyond infancy into childhood.³
Paternal depression is also associated with decreased bonding and attachment with the child, increased maternal postpartum depression, and relationship stress.¹¹
Why fathers don’t ask for help.
Despite the prevalence and consequences of paternal perinatal depression, fathers face significant barriers to getting support. A scoping review of 47 studies found that barriers operate at multiple levels:¹²
– At the individual level, many fathers struggle to recognize or label their emotional distress, and some prefer to cope alone.
– Societal expectations around masculinity and fatherhood discourage vulnerability. Fathers may fear their struggles will be perceived as weakness.
– Healthcare systems are often structured around mothers. Fathers report feeling dismissed, overlooked, or out of place in perinatal care settings. Many feel that professionals rarely ask about their mental health.
– Practical barriers include limited availability of father-specific services, cost, and lack of clear information about where to get help.
One study found that 41% of fathers wanted treatment during challenging perinatal periods, but most never received any support.¹²
What actually helps.
The evidence on what works for fathers is still growing, but several approaches show promise:
Social support from family, friends, and especially other fathers is consistently identified as helpful. In-person or online paternal support groups can validate experiences and normalize the emotional challenges of new fatherhood.¹¹
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is recommended for fathers with depressive symptoms that affect quality of life or family relationships.¹¹ A landmark 2025 randomized controlled trial tested a group parenting intervention called “Learning Through Play Plus Dads” for fathers with diagnosed depression. Fathers who received the intervention showed significantly greater improvements in depression, anxiety, parenting stress, and quality of life compared to those receiving usual care, and these improvements were sustained at six months. Their children also showed significantly better social-emotional development.²
For fathers with more severe symptoms, antidepressant medication such as SSRIs may be recommended alongside therapy.¹¹
Digital tools and app-based interventions are emerging as a way to reach fathers who might not seek in-person help. While one randomized trial of a mindfulness-based CBT app did not show superiority over an active control for the full sample, fathers with severe baseline depression did experience greater benefit from the intervention app.¹³
Screening matters, too. Validated tools like the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and the Gotland Male Depression Scale can identify fathers at risk. Because paternal depression may develop later in the postpartum period, screening at 3 to 6 months postpartum may be particularly important.¹¹
The bottom line.
Fatherhood changes your brain, your hormones, and your daily life. Struggling during this transition is not a character flaw. It is a recognized, common, and treatable condition. If you are a new or expectant father and something feels off, that is worth paying attention to. Talk to your doctor, your partner, or a mental health professional. Getting help is not just good for you. It is good for your whole family.
Every family is different. Browse The Baby Collective directory to find the right specialist for your family.
This content is for educational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. For concerns related to your baby’s health, development, or sleep, or your own physical or mental wellbeing, always consult a qualified healthcare provider.
References
1. Rao WW, Zhu XM, Zong QQ, et al. Prevalence of prenatal and postpartum depression in fathers: a comprehensive meta-analysis of observational surveys. J Affect Disord. 2020;263:491-499.
2. Husain MI, Kiran T, Sattar R, et al. A group parenting intervention for male postpartum depression: a cluster randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2025;82(1):22-30.
3. Le Bas G, Aarsman SR, Rogers A, et al. Paternal perinatal depression, anxiety, and stress and child development: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics. 2025;179(8):903-917.
4. Xiang N, Zhou J, Lin Y, et al. Psychiatric disorders among fathers in Sweden before, during, and after partner pregnancy. JAMA Netw Open. 2026;9(3):e262725.
5. Rilling JK, Lee M, Zhou C, et al. Hormonal changes in first-time human fathers in relation to paternal investment. Horm Behav. 2025;171:105740.
6. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Verhees MWFT, Lotz AM, et al. Is paternal oxytocin an oxymoron? Oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, oestradiol and cortisol in emerging fatherhood. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2022;377(1858):20210060.
7. Huang JY, Low FM, Kee MZL, et al. More equitable preconception health: paternal life course opportunities for better pregnancy, child, and family outcomes. Lancet. 2026;407(10537):1459-1470.
8. Wang D, Li YL, Qiu D, Xiao SY. Factors influencing paternal postpartum depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2021;293:51-63.
9. Wain KF, Daley MF, Perraillon MC. Temporal association between maternal depression and paternal postpartum depression. Am J Prev Med. 2025;68(6):1061-1071.
10. Smythe KL, Petersen I, Schartau P. Prevalence of perinatal depression and anxiety in both parents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(6):e2218969.
11. Garfield C. What is paternal perinatal depression? JAMA. 2025.
12. Mancinelli E, Filippi B. Help-seeking in perinatal fathers: a scoping review of needs, barriers, facilitators, and access to support. EClinicalMedicine. 2025;89:103512.
13. Teague SJ, Shatte ABR, Fuller-Tyszkiewicz M, Hutchinson DM. Mobile app-based intervention for paternal perinatal depression, anxiety, and stress: a randomised controlled trial. J Affect Disord. 2025;382:325-335.
